The Vocabulary of the Qur’an

Its dictionary words, what is distinctive of each sūrah, and how the vocabulary changes across the arc of revelation.

1. What a lemma is

Three levels of grouping are used in this project, and mixing them is the commonest way to arrive at a wrong count.

• Root — three consonants and everything built on them. K–T–B gathers kitāb (book), kataba (he wrote), kātib (scribe) and maktūb (written): 319 occurrences in all.
• Lemma — one dictionary word, counted across all its inflections. kitāb as a lemma gathers al-kitāb, kitāban, kitābihi and the plural kutub, but not kataba, which is a different word from the same root.
• Form — one exact spelling, kitābihi and nothing else.

The lemma is the level a dictionary works at, and it is usually the level an ordinary question about a word is really asking about.

6 lemmas are annotated under more than one root in different āyāt; those rows carry a + mark naming the other root. Click a numeric column heading to sort.

2. What is distinctive of each sūrah

For every sūrah, the roots that occur there far more than their share of the rest of the Qur’an would predict. The measure is weighted log-odds with a Dirichlet prior, which prevents a root that happens to occur twice in a short sūrah from dominating.

Each entry shows three things: the root, letter by letter — the origin the word grows from; the āyah in Arabic with the word that root produced marked in gold; and the translation beneath. The verse is there so the vocabulary can be seen in use rather than taken on trust. Long verses are shown as a window around the marked word, with ellipses, so nothing pretends to be the whole verse. Where the word could not be located in the printed text with confidence, the verse appears without a highlight rather than with a guessed one.

How strong is each entry? The count on the right of every entry is how many times that root occurs in that sūrah, and it is the honest measure of how much weight the entry carries. Most rest on two occurrences, which is the threshold used: repetition inside one sūrah is what characteristic vocabulary normally means. Entries resting on a single occurrence are shown in grey italic rather than in blue, and appear only where a sūrah is too short for any root to repeat — Al-Kawthar has three āyāt and ten rooted words, so nothing in it occurs twice. Such entries are still informative, because a rare root in a ten-word sūrah is genuinely particular to it, but they are weaker evidence and are marked as such.

Translation: Marmaduke Pickthall (1930), used because it is in the public domain and this document can therefore be published and shared freely. The corpus also holds modern translations; they are not quoted here.

3. Vocabulary across the arc of revelation

3.1 Lexical variety by phase

How wide a range of roots each phase draws on. This needs care, because the obvious measure is misleading.

The greyed column is the misleading measure, retained for comparison. The bold column is the comparable one.

What the corrected figures show, and how far it goes. Once measured on equal amounts of text the differences are modest: from 254 roots per 500 words in the earliest sūrahs down to 202 in the Madinan ones, a gentle downward gradient rather than the six-fold gap the raw ratio appeared to show. The three later phases sit close together (215, 222, 202) and their window ranges overlap substantially, so the difference between them should not be pressed. The Early Makkan figure is the highest, which is consistent with the short, dense, heavily varied early sūrahs — but it rests on only 3 windows of text, and an estimate from three windows is imprecise. Stated at its proper strength: the measure is compatible with early revelation being somewhat more lexically varied per unit of text, and it does not establish more than that.

3.2 What each phase is preoccupied with

The roots most over-represented in each phase relative to the rest of the Qur’an, each with the earliest verse of that phase in which it occurs.

Early Makkan

positions 1–30 of 114

30 sūrahs1,532 rooted words521 roots present58 only in this phase254 roots per 500 words

1. صحفSHf6×

   بَلْ يُرِيدُ كُلُّ ٱمْرِئٍ مِّنْهُمْ أَن يُؤْتَىٰ صُحُفًا مُّنَشَّرَةً

   74:52Nay, but everyone of them desireth that he should be given open pages (from Allah).

2. يسرysr11×

   … وَٱلنَّهَارَ عَلِمَ أَن لَّن تُحْصُوهُ فَتَابَ عَلَيْكُمْ فَٱقْرَءُوا۟ مَا تَيَسَّرَ مِنَ ٱلْقُرْءَانِ عَلِمَ أَن سَيَكُونُ مِنكُم مَّرْضَىٰ وَءَاخَرُونَ يَضْرِبُونَ …

   73:20Lo! thy Lord knoweth how thou keepest vigil sometimes nearly two-thirds of the night, or (sometimes) half or a third thereof, as do a party of those with thee. Allah measureth the night and the day. He knoweth that ye count it not, and turneth unto you in mercy. Recite, then, of the Qur'an that which is easy for you. He knoweth that there are sick folk among you, while others travel in the land in search of Allah's bounty, and others (still) are fighting for the cause of Allah. So recite of it that which is easy (for you), and establish worship and pay the poor-due, and (so) lend unto Allah a goodly loan. Whatsoever good ye send before you for your souls, ye will find it with Allah, better and greater in the recompense. And seek forgiveness of Allah. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.

3. ليلlyl14×

   قُمِ ٱلَّيْلَ إِلَّا قَلِيلًا

   73:2Keep vigil the night long, save a little -

4. غشوg$w6×

   بِسْمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ وَٱلَّيْلِ إِذَا يَغْشَىٰ

   92:1By the night enshrouding

5. غنيgny10×

   أَن رَّءَاهُ ٱسْتَغْنَىٰٓ

   96:7That he thinketh himself independent!

6. دريdry5×

   وَمَآ أَدْرَىٰكَ مَا سَقَرُ

   74:27- Ah, what will convey unto thee what that burning is! -

7. كرمkrm7×

   ٱقْرَأْ وَرَبُّكَ ٱلْأَكْرَمُ

   96:3Read: And thy Lord is the Most Bounteous,

8. طغيTgy6×

   كَلَّآ إِنَّ ٱلْإِنسَٰنَ لَيَطْغَىٰٓ

   96:6Nay, but verily man is rebellious

9. شرر$rr5×

   مِن شَرِّ مَا خَلَقَ

   113:2From the evil of that which He created;

10. صبحSbH6×

    إِنَّا بَلَوْنَٰهُمْ كَمَا بَلَوْنَآ أَصْحَٰبَ ٱلْجَنَّةِ إِذْ أَقْسَمُوا۟ لَيَصْرِمُنَّهَا مُصْبِحِينَ

    68:17Lo! We have tried them as We tried the owners of the garden when they vowed that they would pluck its fruit next morning,

11. طعمTEm6×

    وَطَعَامًا ذَا غُصَّةٍ وَعَذَابًا أَلِيمًا

    73:13And food which choketh (the partaker), and a painful doom

12. هويhwy5×

    بِسْمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ وَٱلنَّجْمِ إِذَا هَوَىٰ

    53:1By the Star when it setteth,

Middle Makkan

positions 31–60 of 114

30 sūrahs19,253 rooted words1212 roots present239 only in this phase215 roots per 500 words

1. قولqwl902×

   يَقُولُ ٱلْإِنسَٰنُ يَوْمَئِذٍ أَيْنَ ٱلْمَفَرُّ

   75:10On that day man will cry: Whither to flee!

2. رببrbb482×

   إِلَىٰ رَبِّكَ يَوْمَئِذٍ ٱلْمُسْتَقَرُّ

   75:12Unto thy Lord is the recourse that day.

3. سحرsHr49×

   وَإِن يَرَوْا۟ ءَايَةً يُعْرِضُوا۟ وَيَقُولُوا۟ سِحْرٌ مُّسْتَمِرٌّ

   54:2And if they behold a portent they turn away and say: Prolonged illusion.

4. جيأjy>154×

   بَلْ عَجِبُوٓا۟ أَن جَآءَهُم مُّنذِرٌ مِّنْهُمْ فَقَالَ ٱلْكَٰفِرُونَ هَٰذَا شَىْءٌ عَجِيبٌ

   50:2Nay, but they marvel that a warner of their own hath come unto them; and the disbelievers say: This is a strange thing:

5. كونkwn633×

   أَلَمْ يَكُ نُطْفَةً مِّن مَّنِىٍّ يُمْنَىٰ

   75:37Was he not a drop of fluid which gushed forth?

6. عبدEbd147×

   تَبْصِرَةً وَذِكْرَىٰ لِكُلِّ عَبْدٍ مُّنِيبٍ

   50:8A vision and a reminder for every penitent slave.

7. ملأml>32×

   يَوْمَ نَقُولُ لِجَهَنَّمَ هَلِ ٱمْتَلَأْتِ وَتَقُولُ هَلْ مِن مَّزِيدٍ

   50:30On the day when We say unto hell: Art thou filled? and it saith: Can there be more to come?

8. كذبk*b148×

   وَلَٰكِن كَذَّبَ وَتَوَلَّىٰ

   75:32But he denied and flouted.

9. قرأqr>56×

   إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا جَمْعَهُۥ وَقُرْءَانَهُۥ

   75:17Lo! upon Us (resteth) the putting together thereof and the reading thereof.

10. نظرnZr76×

    إِلَىٰ رَبِّهَا نَاظِرَةٌ

    75:23Looking toward their Lord;

11. أبو>bw70×

    يَٰبَنِىٓ ءَادَمَ لَا يَفْتِنَنَّكُمُ ٱلشَّيْطَٰنُ كَمَآ أَخْرَجَ أَبَوَيْكُم مِّنَ ٱلْجَنَّةِ يَنزِعُ عَنْهُمَا لِبَاسَهُمَا لِيُرِيَهُمَا سَوْءَٰتِهِمَآ إِنَّهُۥ يَرَىٰكُمْ …

    7:27O Children of Adam! Let not Satan seduce you as he caused your (first) parents to go forth from the Garden and tore off from them their robe (of innocence) that he might manifest their shame to them. Lo! he seeth you, he and his tribe, from whence ye see him not. Lo! We have made the devils protecting friends for those who believe not.

12. نذرn*r74×

    عُذْرًا أَوْ نُذْرًا

    77:6To excuse or to warn,

Late Makkan

positions 61–86 of 114

26 sūrahs9,686 rooted words972 roots present100 only in this phase222 roots per 500 words

1. خلقxlq88×

   قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ ٱلْأَرْضَ فِى يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُۥٓ أَندَادًا ذَٰلِكَ رَبُّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ

   41:9Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds.

2. سوعswE22×

   إِلَيْهِ يُرَدُّ عِلْمُ ٱلسَّاعَةِ وَمَا تَخْرُجُ مِن ثَمَرَٰتٍ مِّنْ أَكْمَامِهَا وَمَا تَحْمِلُ مِنْ …

   41:47Unto Him is referred (all) knowledge of the Hour. And no fruits burst forth from their sheaths, and no female carrieth or bringeth forth but with His knowledge. And on the day when He calleth unto them: Where are now My partners? they will say: We confess unto Thee, not one of us is a witness (for them).

3. جعلjEl103×

   قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ ٱلْأَرْضَ فِى يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُۥٓ أَندَادًا ذَٰلِكَ رَبُّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ

   41:9Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds.

4. يومywm135×

   قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ ٱلْأَرْضَ فِى يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُۥٓ أَندَادًا ذَٰلِكَ رَبُّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ

   41:9Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds.

5. شفق$fq9×

   يَسْتَعْجِلُ بِهَا ٱلَّذِينَ لَا يُؤْمِنُونَ بِهَا وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ مُشْفِقُونَ مِنْهَا وَيَعْلَمُونَ أَنَّهَا ٱلْحَقُّ أَلَآ إِنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ يُمَارُونَ فِى …

   42:18Those who believe not therein seek to hasten it, while those who believe are fearful of it and know that it is the Truth. Are not they who dispute, in doubt concerning the Hour, far astray?

6. لبثlbv15×

   … وَلَا تَسْتَعْجِل لَّهُمْ كَأَنَّهُمْ يَوْمَ يَرَوْنَ مَا يُوعَدُونَ لَمْ يَلْبَثُوٓا۟ إِلَّا سَاعَةً مِّن نَّهَارٍۭ بَلَٰغٌ فَهَلْ يُهْلَكُ إِلَّا ٱلْقَوْمُ …

   46:35Then have patience (O Muhammad) even as the stout of heart among the messengers (of old) had patience, and seek not to hasten on (the doom) for them. On the day when they see that which they are promised (it will seem to them) as though they had tarried but an hour of daylight. A clear message. Shall any be destroyed save evil-living folk?

7. ذوق*wq24×

   فَأَرْسَلْنَا عَلَيْهِمْ رِيحًا صَرْصَرًا فِىٓ أَيَّامٍ نَّحِسَاتٍ لِّنُذِيقَهُمْ عَذَابَ ٱلْخِزْىِ فِى ٱلْحَيَوٰةِ ٱلدُّنْيَا وَلَعَذَابُ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ أَخْزَىٰ وَهُمْ …

   41:16Therefor We let loose on them a raging wind in evil days, that We might make them taste the torment of disgrace in the life of the world. And verily the doom of the Hereafter will be more shameful, and they will not be helped.

8. سموsmw106×

   ثُمَّ ٱسْتَوَىٰٓ إِلَى ٱلسَّمَآءِ وَهِىَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ٱئْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا …

   41:11Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient.

9. أرض>rD125×

   قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ ٱلْأَرْضَ فِى يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُۥٓ أَندَادًا ذَٰلِكَ رَبُّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ

   41:9Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds.

10. وصفwSf8×

    سُبْحَٰنَ رَبِّ ٱلسَّمَٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ رَبِّ ٱلْعَرْشِ عَمَّا يَصِفُونَ

    43:82Glorified be the Lord of the heavens and the earth, the Lord of the Throne, from that which they ascribe (unto Him)!

11. سخرsxr17×

    … تَذْكُرُوا۟ نِعْمَةَ رَبِّكُمْ إِذَا ٱسْتَوَيْتُمْ عَلَيْهِ وَتَقُولُوا۟ سُبْحَٰنَ ٱلَّذِى سَخَّرَ لَنَا هَٰذَا وَمَا كُنَّا لَهُۥ مُقْرِنِينَ

    43:13That ye may mount upon their backs, and may remember your Lord's favour when ye mount thereon, and may say: Glorified be He Who hath subdued these unto us, and we were not capable (of subduing them);

12. كهفkhf6×

    أَمْ حَسِبْتَ أَنَّ أَصْحَٰبَ ٱلْكَهْفِ وَٱلرَّقِيمِ كَانُوا۟ مِنْ ءَايَٰتِنَا عَجَبًا

    18:9Or deemest thou that the People of the Cave and the Inscription are a wonder among Our portents?

Madinan

positions 87–114 of 114

28 sūrahs19,798 rooted words1099 roots present200 only in this phase202 roots per 500 words

1. أله>lh1759×

   خَتَمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَىٰ قُلُوبِهِمْ وَعَلَىٰ سَمْعِهِمْ وَعَلَىٰٓ أَبْصَٰرِهِمْ غِشَٰوَةٌ وَلَهُمْ عَذَابٌ …

   2:7Allah hath sealed their hearing and their hearts, and on their eyes there is a covering. Theirs will be an awful doom.

2. أمن>mn500×

   ٱلَّذِينَ يُؤْمِنُونَ بِٱلْغَيْبِ وَيُقِيمُونَ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ وَمِمَّا رَزَقْنَٰهُمْ يُنفِقُونَ

   2:3Who believe in the Unseen, and establish worship, and spend of that We have bestowed upon them;

3. قتلqtl133×

   … يَٰقَوْمِ إِنَّكُمْ ظَلَمْتُمْ أَنفُسَكُم بِٱتِّخَاذِكُمُ ٱلْعِجْلَ فَتُوبُوٓا۟ إِلَىٰ بَارِئِكُمْ فَٱقْتُلُوٓا۟ أَنفُسَكُمْ ذَٰلِكُمْ خَيْرٌ لَّكُمْ عِندَ بَارِئِكُمْ فَتَابَ عَلَيْكُمْ إِنَّهُۥ …

   2:54And when Moses said unto his people: O my people! Ye have wronged yourselves by your choosing of the calf (for worship) so turn in penitence to your Creator, and kill (the guilty) yourselves. That will be best for you with your Creator and He will relent toward you. Lo! He is the Relenting, the Merciful.

4. نفقnfq98×

   ٱلَّذِينَ يُؤْمِنُونَ بِٱلْغَيْبِ وَيُقِيمُونَ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ وَمِمَّا رَزَقْنَٰهُمْ يُنفِقُونَ

   2:3Who believe in the Unseen, and establish worship, and spend of that We have bestowed upon them;

5. كفرkfr292×

   إِنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ سَوَآءٌ عَلَيْهِمْ ءَأَنذَرْتَهُمْ أَمْ لَمْ تُنذِرْهُمْ لَا يُؤْمِنُونَ

   2:6As for the Disbelievers, Whether thou warn them or thou warn them not it is all one for them; they believe not.

6. قلبqlb110×

   خَتَمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَىٰ قُلُوبِهِمْ وَعَلَىٰ سَمْعِهِمْ وَعَلَىٰٓ أَبْصَٰرِهِمْ غِشَٰوَةٌ وَلَهُمْ عَذَابٌ عَظِيمٌ

   2:7Allah hath sealed their hearing and their hearts, and on their eyes there is a covering. Theirs will be an awful doom.

7. نسوnsw50×

   … مِّنْ ءَالِ فِرْعَوْنَ يَسُومُونَكُمْ سُوٓءَ ٱلْعَذَابِ يُذَبِّحُونَ أَبْنَآءَكُمْ وَيَسْتَحْيُونَ نِسَآءَكُمْ وَفِى ذَٰلِكُم بَلَآءٌ مِّن رَّبِّكُمْ عَظِيمٌ

   2:49And (remember) when We did deliver you from Pharaoh's folk, who were afflicting you with dreadful torment, slaying your sons and sparing your women: that was a tremendous trial from your Lord.

8. توبtwb64×

   فَتَلَقَّىٰٓ ءَادَمُ مِن رَّبِّهِۦ كَلِمَٰتٍ فَتَابَ عَلَيْهِ إِنَّهُۥ هُوَ ٱلتَّوَّابُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ

   2:37Then Adam received from his Lord words (of revelation), and He relented toward him. Lo! He is the relenting, the Merciful.

9. غفرgfr135×

   … مِنْهَا حَيْثُ شِئْتُمْ رَغَدًا وَٱدْخُلُوا۟ ٱلْبَابَ سُجَّدًا وَقُولُوا۟ حِطَّةٌ نَّغْفِرْ لَكُمْ خَطَٰيَٰكُمْ وَسَنَزِيدُ ٱلْمُحْسِنِينَ

   2:58And when We said: Go into this township and eat freely of that which is therein, and enter the gate prostrate, and say: "Repentance." We will forgive you your sins and will increase (reward) for the right-doers.

10. وليwly132×

    ثُمَّ تَوَلَّيْتُم مِّنۢ بَعْدِ ذَٰلِكَ فَلَوْلَا فَضْلُ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْكُمْ وَرَحْمَتُهُۥ لَكُنتُم …

    2:64Then, even after that, ye turned away, and if it had not been for the grace of Allah and His mercy ye had been among the losers.

11. عرفErf51×

    … مِن قَبْلُ يَسْتَفْتِحُونَ عَلَى ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ فَلَمَّا جَآءَهُم مَّا عَرَفُوا۟ كَفَرُوا۟ بِهِۦ فَلَعْنَةُ ٱللَّهِ عَلَى ٱلْكَٰفِرِينَ

    2:89And when there cometh unto them a scripture from Allah, confirming that in their possession - though before that they were asking for a signal triumph over those who disbelieved - and when there cometh unto them that which they know (to be the truth) they disbelieve therein. The curse of Allah is on disbelievers.

12. رضوrDw52×

    وَلَن تَرْضَىٰ عَنكَ ٱلْيَهُودُ وَلَا ٱلنَّصَٰرَىٰ حَتَّىٰ تَتَّبِعَ مِلَّتَهُمْ قُلْ إِنَّ …

    2:120And the Jews will not be pleased with thee, nor will the Christians, till thou follow their creed. Say: Lo! the guidance of Allah (Himself) is Guidance. And if thou shouldst follow their desires after the knowledge which hath come unto thee, then wouldst thou have from Allah no protecting guardian nor helper.

4. Limitations

• The order of revelation is traditional, not established by measurement, and is not uniformly agreed. The phases inherit that.
• Phase boundaries are our own division of that sequence into four equal-ish parts, chosen for legibility. They are not a scholarly periodisation and should not be cited as one.
• Some sūrahs are held to contain verses of the other type, so the Makkan/Madinan split is cleaner in the metadata than in the tradition it summarises.
• Translated verses are evidence of usage, not definitions. They show a root in context; they do not fix its meaning.
• Frequency is not significance. Nothing here infers importance from a count.